Networking and the Internet
Visualization of a portion of the routes on the Internet.
Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the 1950s. The U.S. military's SAGE system was the first large-scale example of such a system, which led to a number of special-purpose commercial systems like Sabre.[32]
In the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the United States began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology. This effort was funded by ARPA (now DARPA), and the computer network that it produced was called the ARPANET.[33] The technologies that made the Arpanet possible spread and evolved.
In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet. The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer. Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like e-mail and the World Wide Web, combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like Ethernet and ADSL saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous. In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information. "Wireless" networking, often utilizing mobile phone networks, has meant networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computingenvironments.
Further topics
Hardware
The term hardware covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible objects. Circuits, displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and mice are all hardware.
History of computing hardware
First Generation (Mechanical/Electromechanical)
Calculators
Antikythera mechanism, Difference engine, Norden bombsight
Programmable Devices
Jacquard loom, Analytical engine, Harvard Mark I, Z3
Second Generation (Vacuum Tubes)
Calculators
Atanasoff–Berry Computer, IBM 604, UNIVAC 60, UNIVAC 120
Programmable Devices
Colossus, ENIAC, Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine, EDSAC, Manchester Mark 1, Ferranti Pegasus, Ferranti Mercury, CSIRAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC I, IBM 701, IBM 702, IBM 650, Z22
Third Generation (Discrete transistors and SSI, MSI, LSI Integrated circuits)
Mainframes
IBM 7090, IBM 7080, IBM System/360, BUNCH
Minicomputer
PDP-8, PDP-11, IBM System/32, IBM System/36
Fourth Generation (VLSI integrated circuits)
Minicomputer
VAX, IBM System i
4-bit microcomputer
Intel 4004, Intel 4040
8-bit microcomputer
Intel 8008, Intel 8080, Motorola 6800, Motorola 6809, MOS Technology 6502, Zilog Z80
16-bit microcomputer
Intel 8088, Zilog Z8000, WDC 65816/65802
32-bit microcomputer
Intel 80386, Pentium, Motorola 68000, ARM architecture
64-bit microcomputer[34]
Alpha, MIPS, PA-RISC, PowerPC, SPARC, x86-64
Embedded computer
Intel 8048, Intel 8051
Personal computer
Desktop computer, Home computer, Laptop computer, Personal digital assistant (PDA), Portable computer, Tablet PC, Wearable computer
Theoretical/experimental
Quantum computer, Chemical computer, DNA computing, Optical computer, Spintronics based computer
Other Hardware Topics
Peripheral device (Input/output)
Input
Mouse, Keyboard, Joystick, Image scanner, Webcam, Graphics tablet, Microphone
Output
Monitor, Printer, Loudspeaker
Both
Floppy disk drive, Hard disk drive, Optical disc drive, Teleprinter
Computer busses
Short range
RS-232, SCSI, PCI, USB
Long range (Computer networking)
Ethernet, ATM, FDDI
Software
Software refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols, etc. When software is stored in hardware that cannot easily be modified (such as BIOS ROM in an IBM PC compatible), it is sometimes called "firmware" to indicate that it falls into an uncertain area somewhere between hardware and software.
Computer software
Operating system
Unix and BSD
UNIX System V, IBM AIX, HP-UX, Solaris (SunOS), IRIX, List of BSD operating systems
GNU/Linux
List of Linux distributions, Comparison of Linux distributions
Microsoft Windows
Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows NT, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows CE
DOS
86-DOS (QDOS), PC-DOS, MS-DOS, DR-DOS, FreeDOS
Mac OS
Mac OS classic, Mac OS X
Embedded and real-time
List of embedded operating systems
Experimental
Amoeba, Oberon/Bluebottle, Plan 9 from Bell Labs
Library
Multimedia
DirectX, OpenGL, OpenAL
Programming library
C standard library, Standard Template Library
Data
Protocol
TCP/IP, Kermit, FTP, HTTP, SMTP
File format
HTML, XML, JPEG, MPEG, PNG
User interface
Graphical user interface (WIMP)
Microsoft Windows, GNOME, KDE, QNX Photon, CDE, GEM, Aqua
Text-based user interface
Command-line interface, Text user interface
Application
Office suite
Word processing, Desktop publishing, Presentation program, Database management system, Scheduling & Time management, Spreadsheet, Accounting software
Internet Access
Browser, E-mail client, Web server, Mail transfer agent, Instant messaging
Design and manufacturing
Computer-aided design, Computer-aided manufacturing, Plant management, Robotic manufacturing, Supply chain management
Graphics
Raster graphics editor, Vector graphics editor, 3D modeler, Animation editor, 3D computer graphics, Video editing, Image processing
Audio
Digital audio editor, Audio playback, Mixing, Audio synthesis, Computer music
Software engineering
Compiler, Assembler, Interpreter, Debugger, Text editor, Integrated development environment, Software performance analysis, Revision control, Software configuration management
Educational
Edutainment, Educational game, Serious game, Flight simulator
Games
Strategy, Arcade, Puzzle, Simulation, First-person shooter, Platform, Massively multiplayer, Interactive fiction
Misc
Artificial intelligence, Antivirus software, Malware scanner, Installer/Package management systems, File manager
Programming languages
Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run. Unlike natural languages, programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud. They are generally either translated into machine code by a compiler or an assembler before being run, or translated directly at run time by an interpreter. Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques. There are thousands of different programming languages—some intended to be general purpose, others useful only for highly specialized applications.
Programming languages
Lists of programming languages
Timeline of programming languages, List of programming languages by category, Generational list of programming languages, List of programming languages, Non-English-based programming languages
Commonly used Assembly languages
ARM, MIPS, x86
Commonly used high-level programming languages
Ada, BASIC, C, C++, C#, COBOL, Fortran, Java, Lisp, Pascal, Object Pascal
Commonly used Scripting languages
Bourne script, JavaScript, Python, Ruby, PHP, Perl
Professions and organizations
As the use of computers has spread throughout society, there are an increasing number of careers involving computers.
Computer-related professions
Hardware-related
Electrical engineering, Electronic engineering, Computer engineering, Telecommunications engineering, Optical engineering, Nanoengineering
Software-related
Computer science, Desktop publishing, Human–computer interaction, Information technology, Computational science, Software engineering, Video game industry, Web design
The need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature.
Organizations
Standards groups
ANSI, IEC, IEEE, IETF, ISO, W3C
Professional Societies
ACM, ACM Special Interest Groups, IET, IFIP, BCS
Free/Open source software groups
Free Software Foundation, Mozilla Foundation, Apache Software Foundation
Visualization of a portion of the routes on the Internet.
Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the 1950s. The U.S. military's SAGE system was the first large-scale example of such a system, which led to a number of special-purpose commercial systems like Sabre.[32]
In the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the United States began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology. This effort was funded by ARPA (now DARPA), and the computer network that it produced was called the ARPANET.[33] The technologies that made the Arpanet possible spread and evolved.
In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet. The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer. Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like e-mail and the World Wide Web, combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like Ethernet and ADSL saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous. In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information. "Wireless" networking, often utilizing mobile phone networks, has meant networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computingenvironments.
Further topics
Hardware
The term hardware covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible objects. Circuits, displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and mice are all hardware.
History of computing hardware
First Generation (Mechanical/Electromechanical)
Calculators
Antikythera mechanism, Difference engine, Norden bombsight
Programmable Devices
Jacquard loom, Analytical engine, Harvard Mark I, Z3
Second Generation (Vacuum Tubes)
Calculators
Atanasoff–Berry Computer, IBM 604, UNIVAC 60, UNIVAC 120
Programmable Devices
Colossus, ENIAC, Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine, EDSAC, Manchester Mark 1, Ferranti Pegasus, Ferranti Mercury, CSIRAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC I, IBM 701, IBM 702, IBM 650, Z22
Third Generation (Discrete transistors and SSI, MSI, LSI Integrated circuits)
Mainframes
IBM 7090, IBM 7080, IBM System/360, BUNCH
Minicomputer
PDP-8, PDP-11, IBM System/32, IBM System/36
Fourth Generation (VLSI integrated circuits)
Minicomputer
VAX, IBM System i
4-bit microcomputer
Intel 4004, Intel 4040
8-bit microcomputer
Intel 8008, Intel 8080, Motorola 6800, Motorola 6809, MOS Technology 6502, Zilog Z80
16-bit microcomputer
Intel 8088, Zilog Z8000, WDC 65816/65802
32-bit microcomputer
Intel 80386, Pentium, Motorola 68000, ARM architecture
64-bit microcomputer[34]
Alpha, MIPS, PA-RISC, PowerPC, SPARC, x86-64
Embedded computer
Intel 8048, Intel 8051
Personal computer
Desktop computer, Home computer, Laptop computer, Personal digital assistant (PDA), Portable computer, Tablet PC, Wearable computer
Theoretical/experimental
Quantum computer, Chemical computer, DNA computing, Optical computer, Spintronics based computer
Other Hardware Topics
Peripheral device (Input/output)
Input
Mouse, Keyboard, Joystick, Image scanner, Webcam, Graphics tablet, Microphone
Output
Monitor, Printer, Loudspeaker
Both
Floppy disk drive, Hard disk drive, Optical disc drive, Teleprinter
Computer busses
Short range
RS-232, SCSI, PCI, USB
Long range (Computer networking)
Ethernet, ATM, FDDI
Software
Software refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols, etc. When software is stored in hardware that cannot easily be modified (such as BIOS ROM in an IBM PC compatible), it is sometimes called "firmware" to indicate that it falls into an uncertain area somewhere between hardware and software.
Computer software
Operating system
Unix and BSD
UNIX System V, IBM AIX, HP-UX, Solaris (SunOS), IRIX, List of BSD operating systems
GNU/Linux
List of Linux distributions, Comparison of Linux distributions
Microsoft Windows
Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows NT, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows CE
DOS
86-DOS (QDOS), PC-DOS, MS-DOS, DR-DOS, FreeDOS
Mac OS
Mac OS classic, Mac OS X
Embedded and real-time
List of embedded operating systems
Experimental
Amoeba, Oberon/Bluebottle, Plan 9 from Bell Labs
Library
Multimedia
DirectX, OpenGL, OpenAL
Programming library
C standard library, Standard Template Library
Data
Protocol
TCP/IP, Kermit, FTP, HTTP, SMTP
File format
HTML, XML, JPEG, MPEG, PNG
User interface
Graphical user interface (WIMP)
Microsoft Windows, GNOME, KDE, QNX Photon, CDE, GEM, Aqua
Text-based user interface
Command-line interface, Text user interface
Application
Office suite
Word processing, Desktop publishing, Presentation program, Database management system, Scheduling & Time management, Spreadsheet, Accounting software
Internet Access
Browser, E-mail client, Web server, Mail transfer agent, Instant messaging
Design and manufacturing
Computer-aided design, Computer-aided manufacturing, Plant management, Robotic manufacturing, Supply chain management
Graphics
Raster graphics editor, Vector graphics editor, 3D modeler, Animation editor, 3D computer graphics, Video editing, Image processing
Audio
Digital audio editor, Audio playback, Mixing, Audio synthesis, Computer music
Software engineering
Compiler, Assembler, Interpreter, Debugger, Text editor, Integrated development environment, Software performance analysis, Revision control, Software configuration management
Educational
Edutainment, Educational game, Serious game, Flight simulator
Games
Strategy, Arcade, Puzzle, Simulation, First-person shooter, Platform, Massively multiplayer, Interactive fiction
Misc
Artificial intelligence, Antivirus software, Malware scanner, Installer/Package management systems, File manager
Programming languages
Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run. Unlike natural languages, programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud. They are generally either translated into machine code by a compiler or an assembler before being run, or translated directly at run time by an interpreter. Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques. There are thousands of different programming languages—some intended to be general purpose, others useful only for highly specialized applications.
Programming languages
Lists of programming languages
Timeline of programming languages, List of programming languages by category, Generational list of programming languages, List of programming languages, Non-English-based programming languages
Commonly used Assembly languages
ARM, MIPS, x86
Commonly used high-level programming languages
Ada, BASIC, C, C++, C#, COBOL, Fortran, Java, Lisp, Pascal, Object Pascal
Commonly used Scripting languages
Bourne script, JavaScript, Python, Ruby, PHP, Perl
Professions and organizations
As the use of computers has spread throughout society, there are an increasing number of careers involving computers.
Computer-related professions
Hardware-related
Electrical engineering, Electronic engineering, Computer engineering, Telecommunications engineering, Optical engineering, Nanoengineering
Software-related
Computer science, Desktop publishing, Human–computer interaction, Information technology, Computational science, Software engineering, Video game industry, Web design
The need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature.
Organizations
Standards groups
ANSI, IEC, IEEE, IETF, ISO, W3C
Professional Societies
ACM, ACM Special Interest Groups, IET, IFIP, BCS
Free/Open source software groups
Free Software Foundation, Mozilla Foundation, Apache Software Foundation
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